How did Gempaku’s experience indicate that there were beliefs in Japanese society restricting the routine examination of human corpses for medical research? A Japanese View of European Sciencen the history of modem science, a commonpattern has been repeated around the world.Those who generated new ideas, such as Galileo,were often attacked for their assault on tradition,who saw the violation of dead bodies as sacrile-gious. Over the next two hundred years, however,dissection became a routine process.In the eighteenth century, the Tokugawashoguns had severely limited Japanese contactswith Europeans. But through the annual Dutchtrade mission to Nagasaki, a few books enteredthe country, and some curious Japanese scholarslearned Dutch so they could read them (seeChapter 20). Below, a physician named SugitaGempaku (1733–1817) describes how, havinglooked at a Dutch anatomy text, he was astonishedbut later their innovations were absorbed into theEuropean status quo. When Europeans then tookthe new science to other continents, once againthese ideas and approaches challenged establishedtradition. Here we have an example from anatomy,with a Japanese observation of the dissection of ahuman corpse.For medieval Europeans the main authority inanatomy was the ancient Greek physician Galen,who, though he dissected many birds and animals,had theories about the inner workings of thehuman body that were based largely on specula-tion. Then, in 1543, a Belgian physician publisheda new scheme of human anatomy based on actualto see how accurate it was when he witnessed thedissection of a human body.Source: English translation copyright O 1997 by David J.Lu. From Japan: A Documentary History, ed. David J. Lu(Amonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), pp. 264-267. Usedwith permission of M. E Sharpe, Inc. AlI Rights Reserved.Not for reproduction.dissection of human cadavers. Adherents of Galen'sview were upset, as were those many ChristiansA Dutch Lesson In AnatomySomehow, miraculously I obtained a [Dutch]book on anatomy. [Then] I recelved a letterfrom ... the Town Commissioner: "A post-mortem examination of the body of a con-demned criminal by a resident physician willbe held tomorrow.... You are welcome towitness it if you so desire."The next day, when we arrived at the lo-cation ... Ryotaku reached under his kimonoto produce a Dutch book and showed it tous. "This is a Dutch book of anatomy calledTabulae Anatomicae. I bought this a few yearsago when I went to Nagasaki, and kept it." AsI examined it, it was the same book Ihad andhart, or the heart."... However, they did notlook like the heart given in the Chinese medi-cal books, and none of us were sure until wecould actually see the dissection.Thereafter we went together to theplace that was especially set aside [for] usto observe the dissection... That day, thebutcher pointed to this and that organ. Af-ter the heart, liver, gall bladder and stomachwere identifled, he pointed to other parts forwhich there were no names. "I don't knowtheir names. But I have dissected quite a fewbodies from my youthful days... Every timeI had a dissection, I pointed out to those phy-sicians many of these parts, but not a singleone of them questioned What was this,' orWhat was that?" We compared the body asdissected against the charts both Ryotaku and.I had, and could not find a single variancefrom the charts. The Chinese Book of Medicinewas of the same edition. We held each other'shands and exclaimed: "What a coincidence!"Ryotaku continued by saying, "When I wentto Nagasaki, I learned and heard," and openedthis book. "These are called long in Dutch,they are the lungs," he taught us. "This is says that the lungs are like the eight petals ofthe lotus flower, with three petals hanging infront, three in back, and two petals forminglike two ears... There were no such divisions,and the position and shapes of intestinesand gastric organs were all different fromthose taught by the old theories. The officialphysicians... had witnessed dissection sevenor elght times. Whenever they witnessed thedissection, they found that the old theorlescontradicted reality. Each time they wereperplexed and could not resolve their doubts.Every time they wrote down what theythought was strange. They wrote in theirbooks, "The more we think of it, there mustOn the way home we spoke to each otherand felt the same way. "How marvelous wasour actual experlence today. It is a shame thatwe were ignorant of these things until now.As physicians... we performed our duties incomplete Ignorance of the true form of the hu-man body."... Then I spoke to my compan-lon, "Somehow if we can translate anew thisbook called Tabulae Anatomicae, we can get aclear notion of the human body inside out. Itwill have great benefit in the treatment of ourpatlents. Let us do our best to read it and un-derstand it without the help of translators.".The next day, we assembled at the houseof Ryotaku and recalled the happenings ofthe previous day. When we faced the TabulaeAnatomicae we felt as if we were setting sallon a great ocean in a ship without oars or arudder. With the magnitude of the work be-fore us, we were dumbfounded by our ownIgnorance.... At that time I did not knowthe twenty-five letters of the Dutch alphabet.I decided to study the language with firmdetermination, but I had to acquaint myselfwith letters and words gradually.be fundamental differences in the bodlesof Chinese and of the eastern barbarlans."I could see why they wrote this way....We decided that we should also examinethe shape of the skeletons left exposed on theexecution ground. We collected the bones,and examined a number of them. Again, wewere struck by the fact that they all differedfrom the old theories while conforming tothe Dutch charts....

Question

How did Gempaku’s experience indicate that there were beliefs in Japanese society restricting the routine examination of human corpses for medical research? A Japanese View of European Sciencen the history of modem science, a commonpattern has been repeated around the world.Those who generated new ideas, such as Galileo,were often attacked for their assault on tradition,who saw the violation of dead bodies as sacrile-gious. Over the next two hundred years, however,dissection became a routine process.In the eighteenth century, the Tokugawashoguns had severely limited Japanese contactswith Europeans. But through the annual Dutchtrade mission to Nagasaki, a few books enteredthe country, and some curious Japanese scholarslearned Dutch so they could read them (seeChapter 20). Below, a physician named SugitaGempaku (1733–1817) describes how, havinglooked at a Dutch anatomy text, he was astonishedbut later their innovations were absorbed into theEuropean status quo. When Europeans then tookthe new science to other continents, once againthese ideas and approaches challenged establishedtradition. Here we have an example from anatomy,with a Japanese observation of the dissection of ahuman corpse.For medieval Europeans the main authority inanatomy was the ancient Greek physician Galen,who, though he dissected many birds and animals,had theories about the inner workings of thehuman body that were based largely on specula-tion. Then, in 1543, a Belgian physician publisheda new scheme of human anatomy based on actualto see how accurate it was when he witnessed thedissection of a human body.Source: English translation copyright O 1997 by David J.Lu. From Japan: A Documentary History, ed. David J. Lu(Amonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), pp. 264-267. Usedwith permission of M. E Sharpe, Inc. AlI Rights Reserved.Not for reproduction.dissection of human cadavers. Adherents of Galen'sview were upset, as were those many ChristiansA Dutch Lesson In AnatomySomehow, miraculously I obtained a [Dutch]book on anatomy. [Then] I recelved a letterfrom ... the Town Commissioner: &#34;A post-mortem examination of the body of a con-demned criminal by a resident physician willbe held tomorrow.... You are welcome towitness it if you so desire.&#34;The next day, when we arrived at the lo-cation ... Ryotaku reached under his kimonoto produce a Dutch book and showed it tous. &#34;This is a Dutch book of anatomy calledTabulae Anatomicae. I bought this a few yearsago when I went to Nagasaki, and kept it.&#34; AsI examined it, it was the same book Ihad andhart, or the heart.&#34;... However, they did notlook like the heart given in the Chinese medi-cal books, and none of us were sure until wecould actually see the dissection.Thereafter we went together to theplace that was especially set aside [for] usto observe the dissection... That day, thebutcher pointed to this and that organ. Af-ter the heart, liver, gall bladder and stomachwere identifled, he pointed to other parts forwhich there were no names. &#34;I don't knowtheir names. But I have dissected quite a fewbodies from my youthful days... Every timeI had a dissection, I pointed out to those phy-sicians many of these parts, but not a singleone of them questioned What was this,' orWhat was that?&#34; We compared the body asdissected against the charts both Ryotaku and.I had, and could not find a single variancefrom the charts. The Chinese Book of Medicinewas of the same edition. We held each other'shands and exclaimed: &#34;What a coincidence!&#34;Ryotaku continued by saying, &#34;When I wentto Nagasaki, I learned and heard,&#34; and openedthis book. &#34;These are called long in Dutch,they are the lungs,&#34; he taught us. &#34;This is says that the lungs are like the eight petals ofthe lotus flower, with three petals hanging infront, three in back, and two petals forminglike two ears... There were no such divisions,and the position and shapes of intestinesand gastric organs were all different fromthose taught by the old theories. The officialphysicians... had witnessed dissection sevenor elght times. Whenever they witnessed thedissection, they found that the old theorlescontradicted reality. Each time they wereperplexed and could not resolve their doubts.Every time they wrote down what theythought was strange. They wrote in theirbooks, &#34;The more we think of it, there mustOn the way home we spoke to each otherand felt the same way. &#34;How marvelous wasour actual experlence today. It is a shame thatwe were ignorant of these things until now.As physicians... we performed our duties incomplete Ignorance of the true form of the hu-man body.&#34;... Then I spoke to my compan-lon, &#34;Somehow if we can translate anew thisbook called Tabulae Anatomicae, we can get aclear notion of the human body inside out. Itwill have great benefit in the treatment of ourpatlents. Let us do our best to read it and un-derstand it without the help of translators.&#34;.The next day, we assembled at the houseof Ryotaku and recalled the happenings ofthe previous day. When we faced the TabulaeAnatomicae we felt as if we were setting sallon a great ocean in a ship without oars or arudder. With the magnitude of the work be-fore us, we were dumbfounded by our ownIgnorance.... At that time I did not knowthe twenty-five letters of the Dutch alphabet.I decided to study the language with firmdetermination, but I had to acquaint myselfwith letters and words gradually.be fundamental differences in the bodlesof Chinese and of the eastern barbarlans.&#34;I could see why they wrote this way....We decided that we should also examinethe shape of the skeletons left exposed on theexecution ground. We collected the bones,and examined a number of them. Again, wewere struck by the fact that they all differedfrom the old theories while conforming tothe Dutch charts....

Accepted Answer

Gempaku's experience as a key figure in the promotion of Dutch learning in Japan during the 18th…

the history of modern science, a common tter has been repeated around the world. ose who generated new ideas, such as Galileo, often attacked for their assault on tradition, ter their innovations were absorbed into the ean status quo. When Europeans then took